"""
Overview
--------

This module implements the Multiple Imputation through Chained
Equations (MICE) approach to handling missing data in statistical data
analyses. The approach has the following steps:

0. Impute each missing value with the mean of the observed values of
the same variable.

1. For each variable in the data set with missing values (termed the
'focus variable'), do the following:

1a. Fit an 'imputation model', which is a regression model for the
focus variable, regressed on the observed and (current) imputed values
of some or all of the other variables.

1b. Impute the missing values for the focus variable.  Currently this
imputation must use the 'predictive mean matching' (pmm) procedure.

2. Once all variables have been imputed, fit the 'analysis model' to
the data set.

3. Repeat steps 1-2 multiple times and combine the results using a
'combining rule' to produce point estimates of all parameters in the
analysis model and standard errors for them.

The imputations for each variable are based on an imputation model
that is specified via a model class and a formula for the regression
relationship.  The default model is OLS, with a formula specifying
main effects for all other variables.

The MICE procedure can be used in one of two ways:

* If the goal is only to produce imputed data sets, the MICEData class
can be used to wrap a data frame, providing facilities for doing the
imputation.  Summary plots are available for assessing the performance
of the imputation.

* If the imputed data sets are to be used to fit an additional
'analysis model', a MICE instance can be used.  After specifying the
MICE instance and running it, the results are combined using the
`combine` method.  Results and various summary plots are then
available.

Terminology
-----------

The primary goal of the analysis is usually to fit and perform
inference using an 'analysis model'. If an analysis model is not
specified, then imputed datasets are produced for later use.

The MICE procedure involves a family of imputation models.  There is
one imputation model for each variable with missing values.  An
imputation model may be conditioned on all or a subset of the
remaining variables, using main effects, transformations,
interactions, etc. as desired.

A 'perturbation method' is a method for setting the parameter estimate
in an imputation model.  The 'gaussian' perturbation method first fits
the model (usually using maximum likelihood, but it could use any
statsmodels fit procedure), then sets the parameter vector equal to a
draw from the Gaussian approximation to the sampling distribution for
the fit.  The 'bootstrap' perturbation method sets the parameter
vector equal to a fitted parameter vector obtained when fitting the
conditional model to a bootstrapped version of the data set.

Class structure
---------------

There are two main classes in the module:

* 'MICEData' wraps a Pandas dataframe, incorporating information about
  the imputation model for each variable with missing values. It can
  be used to produce multiply imputed data sets that are to be further
  processed or distributed to other researchers.  A number of plotting
  procedures are provided to visualize the imputation results and
  missing data patterns.  The `history_func` hook allows any features
  of interest of the imputed data sets to be saved for further
  analysis.

* 'MICE' takes both a 'MICEData' object and an analysis model
  specification.  It runs the multiple imputation, fits the analysis
  models, and combines the results to produce a `MICEResults` object.
  The summary method of this results object can be used to see the key
  estimands and inferential quantities.

Notes
-----

By default, to conserve memory 'MICEData' saves very little
information from one iteration to the next.  The data set passed by
the user is copied on entry, but then is over-written each time new
imputations are produced.  If using 'MICE', the fitted
analysis models and results are saved.  MICEData includes a
`history_callback` hook that allows arbitrary information from the
intermediate datasets to be saved for future use.

References
----------

JL Schafer: 'Multiple Imputation: A Primer', Stat Methods Med Res,
1999.

TE Raghunathan et al.: 'A Multivariate Technique for Multiply
Imputing Missing Values Using a Sequence of Regression Models', Survey
Methodology, 2001.

SAS Institute: 'Predictive Mean Matching Method for Monotone Missing
Data', SAS 9.2 User's Guide, 2014.

A Gelman et al.: 'Multiple Imputation with Diagnostics (mi) in R:
Opening Windows into the Black Box', Journal of Statistical Software,
2009.
"""

import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
import patsy
from statsmodels.base.model import LikelihoodModelResults
from statsmodels.regression.linear_model import OLS
from collections import defaultdict


_mice_data_example_1 = """
    >>> imp = mice.MICEData(data)
    >>> imp.set_imputer('x1', formula='x2 + np.square(x2) + x3')
    >>> for j in range(20):
    ...     imp.update_all()
    ...     imp.data.to_csv('data%02d.csv' % j)"""

_mice_data_example_2 = """
    >>> imp = mice.MICEData(data)
    >>> j = 0
    >>> for data in imp:
    ...     imp.data.to_csv('data%02d.csv' % j)
    ...     j += 1"""


class PatsyFormula(object):
    """
    A simple wrapper for a string to be interpreted as a Patsy formula.
    """
    def __init__(self, formula):
        self.formula = "0 + " + formula


class MICEData(object):

    __doc__ = """\
    Wrap a data set to allow missing data handling with MICE.

    Parameters
    ----------
    data : Pandas data frame
        The data set, which is copied internally.
    perturbation_method : str
        The default perturbation method
    k_pmm : int
        The number of nearest neighbors to use during predictive mean
        matching.  Can also be specified in `fit`.
    history_callback : function
        A function that is called after each complete imputation
        cycle.  The return value is appended to `history`.  The
        MICEData object is passed as the sole argument to
        `history_callback`.

    Examples
    --------
    Draw 20 imputations from a data set called `data` and save them in
    separate files with filename pattern `dataXX.csv`.  The variables
    other than `x1` are imputed using linear models fit with OLS, with
    mean structures containing main effects of all other variables in
    `data`.  The variable named `x1` has a conditional mean structure
    that includes an additional term for x2^2.
    %(_mice_data_example_1)s

    Impute using default models, using the MICEData object as an
    iterator.
    %(_mice_data_example_2)s

    Notes
    -----
    Allowed perturbation methods are 'gaussian' (the model parameters
    are set to a draw from the Gaussian approximation to the posterior
    distribution), and 'boot' (the model parameters are set to the
    estimated values obtained when fitting a bootstrapped version of
    the data set).

    `history_callback` can be implemented to have side effects such as
    saving the current imputed data set to disk.
    """ % {'_mice_data_example_1': _mice_data_example_1,
           '_mice_data_example_2': _mice_data_example_2}

    def __init__(self, data, perturbation_method='gaussian',
                 k_pmm=20, history_callback=None):

        if data.columns.dtype != np.dtype('O'):
            msg = "MICEData data column names should be string type"
            raise ValueError(msg)

        self.regularized = dict()

        # Drop observations where all variables are missing.  This
        # also has the effect of copying the data frame.
        self.data = data.dropna(how='all').reset_index(drop=True)

        self.history_callback = history_callback
        self.history = []
        self.predict_kwds = {}

        # Assign the same perturbation method for all variables.
        # Can be overridden when calling 'set_imputer'.
        self.perturbation_method = defaultdict(lambda:
                                               perturbation_method)

        # Map from variable name to indices of observed/missing
        # values.
        self.ix_obs = {}
        self.ix_miss = {}
        for col in self.data.columns:
            ix_obs, ix_miss = self._split_indices(self.data[col])
            self.ix_obs[col] = ix_obs
            self.ix_miss[col] = ix_miss

        # Most recent model instance and results instance for each variable.
        self.models = {}
        self.results = {}

        # Map from variable names to the conditional formula.
        self.conditional_formula = {}

        # Map from variable names to init/fit args of the conditional
        # models.
        self.init_kwds = defaultdict(lambda: dict())
        self.fit_kwds = defaultdict(lambda: dict())

        # Map from variable names to the model class.
        self.model_class = {}

        # Map from variable names to most recent params update.
        self.params = {}

        # Set default imputers.
        for vname in data.columns:
            self.set_imputer(vname)

        # The order in which variables are imputed in each cycle.
        # Impute variables with the fewest missing values first.
        vnames = list(data.columns)
        nmiss = [len(self.ix_miss[v]) for v in vnames]
        nmiss = np.asarray(nmiss)
        ii = np.argsort(nmiss)
        ii = ii[sum(nmiss == 0):]
        self._cycle_order = [vnames[i] for i in ii]

        self._initial_imputation()

        self.k_pmm = k_pmm

    def next_sample(self):
        """
        Returns the next imputed dataset in the imputation process.

        Returns
        -------
        data : array_like
            An imputed dataset from the MICE chain.

        Notes
        -----
        `MICEData` does not have a `skip` parameter.  Consecutive
        values returned by `next_sample` are immediately consecutive
        in the imputation chain.

        The returned value is a reference to the data attribute of
        the class and should be copied before making any changes.
        """

        self.update_all(1)
        return self.data

    def _initial_imputation(self):
        """
        Use a PMM-like procedure for initial imputed values.

        For each variable, missing values are imputed as the observed
        value that is closest to the mean over all observed values.
        """

        for col in self.data.columns:
            di = self.data[col] - self.data[col].mean()
            di = np.abs(di)
            ix = di.idxmin()
            imp = self.data[col].loc[ix]
            self.data[col].fillna(imp, inplace=True)

    def _split_indices(self, vec):
        null = pd.isnull(vec)
        ix_obs = np.flatnonzero(~null)
        ix_miss = np.flatnonzero(null)
        if len(ix_obs) == 0:
            raise ValueError("variable to be imputed has no observed values")
        return ix_obs, ix_miss

    def set_imputer(self, endog_name, formula=None, model_class=None,
                    init_kwds=None, fit_kwds=None, predict_kwds=None,
                    k_pmm=20, perturbation_method=None, regularized=False):
        """
        Specify the imputation process for a single variable.

        Parameters
        ----------
        endog_name : str
            Name of the variable to be imputed.
        formula : str
            Conditional formula for imputation. Defaults to a formula
            with main effects for all other variables in dataset.  The
            formula should only include an expression for the mean
            structure, e.g. use 'x1 + x2' not 'x4 ~ x1 + x2'.
        model_class : statsmodels model
            Conditional model for imputation. Defaults to OLS.  See below
            for more information.
        init_kwds : dit-like
            Keyword arguments passed to the model init method.
        fit_kwds : dict-like
            Keyword arguments passed to the model fit method.
        predict_kwds : dict-like
            Keyword arguments passed to the model predict method.
        k_pmm : int
            Determines number of neighboring observations from which
            to randomly sample when using predictive mean matching.
        perturbation_method : str
            Either 'gaussian' or 'bootstrap'. Determines the method
            for perturbing parameters in the imputation model.  If
            None, uses the default specified at class initialization.
        regularized : dict
            If regularized[name]=True, `fit_regularized` rather than
            `fit` is called when fitting imputation models for this
            variable.  When regularized[name]=True for any variable,
            perturbation_method must be set to boot.

        Notes
        -----
        The model class must meet the following conditions:
            * A model must have a 'fit' method that returns an object.
            * The object returned from `fit` must have a `params` attribute
              that is an array-like object.
            * The object returned from `fit` must have a cov_params method
              that returns a square array-like object.
            * The model must have a `predict` method.
        """

        if formula is None:
            main_effects = [x for x in self.data.columns
                            if x != endog_name]
            fml = endog_name + " ~ " + " + ".join(main_effects)
            self.conditional_formula[endog_name] = fml
        else:
            fml = endog_name + " ~ " + formula
            self.conditional_formula[endog_name] = fml

        if model_class is None:
            self.model_class[endog_name] = OLS
        else:
            self.model_class[endog_name] = model_class

        if init_kwds is not None:
            self.init_kwds[endog_name] = init_kwds

        if fit_kwds is not None:
            self.fit_kwds[endog_name] = fit_kwds

        if predict_kwds is not None:
            self.predict_kwds[endog_name] = predict_kwds

        if perturbation_method is not None:
            self.perturbation_method[endog_name] = perturbation_method

        self.k_pmm = k_pmm
        self.regularized[endog_name] = regularized

    def _store_changes(self, col, vals):
        """
        Fill in dataset with imputed values.

        Parameters
        ----------
        col : str
            Name of variable to be filled in.
        vals : ndarray
            Array of imputed values to use for filling-in missing values.
        """

        ix = self.ix_miss[col]
        if len(ix) > 0:
            self.data.iloc[ix, self.data.columns.get_loc(col)] = np.atleast_1d(vals)

    def update_all(self, n_iter=1):
        """
        Perform a specified number of MICE iterations.

        Parameters
        ----------
        n_iter : int
            The number of updates to perform.  Only the result of the
            final update will be available.

        Notes
        -----
        The imputed values are stored in the class attribute `self.data`.
        """

        for k in range(n_iter):
            for vname in self._cycle_order:
                self.update(vname)

        if self.history_callback is not None:
            hv = self.history_callback(self)
            self.history.append(hv)

    def get_split_data(self, vname):
        """
        Return endog and exog for imputation of a given variable.

        Parameters
        ----------
        vname : str
           The variable for which the split data is returned.

        Returns
        -------
        endog_obs : DataFrame
            Observed values of the variable to be imputed.
        exog_obs : DataFrame
            Current values of the predictors where the variable to be
            imputed is observed.
        exog_miss : DataFrame
            Current values of the predictors where the variable to be
            Imputed is missing.
        init_kwds : dict-like
            The init keyword arguments for `vname`, processed through Patsy
            as required.
        fit_kwds : dict-like
            The fit keyword arguments for `vname`, processed through Patsy
            as required.
        """

        formula = self.conditional_formula[vname]
        endog, exog = patsy.dmatrices(formula, self.data,
                                      return_type="dataframe")

        # Rows with observed endog
        ixo = self.ix_obs[vname]
        endog_obs = np.asarray(endog.iloc[ixo])
        exog_obs = np.asarray(exog.iloc[ixo, :])

        # Rows with missing endog
        ixm = self.ix_miss[vname]
        exog_miss = np.asarray(exog.iloc[ixm, :])

        predict_obs_kwds = {}
        if vname in self.predict_kwds:
            kwds = self.predict_kwds[vname]
            predict_obs_kwds = self._process_kwds(kwds, ixo)

        predict_miss_kwds = {}
        if vname in self.predict_kwds:
            kwds = self.predict_kwds[vname]
            predict_miss_kwds = self._process_kwds(kwds, ixo)

        return (endog_obs, exog_obs, exog_miss, predict_obs_kwds,
                predict_miss_kwds)

    def _process_kwds(self, kwds, ix):
        kwds = kwds.copy()
        for k in kwds:
            v = kwds[k]
            if isinstance(v, PatsyFormula):
                mat = patsy.dmatrix(v.formula, self.data,
                                    return_type="dataframe")
                mat = np.asarray(mat)[ix, :]
                if mat.shape[1] == 1:
                    mat = mat[:, 0]
                kwds[k] = mat
        return kwds

    def get_fitting_data(self, vname):
        """
        Return the data needed to fit a model for imputation.

        The data is used to impute variable `vname`, and therefore
        only includes cases for which `vname` is observed.

        Values of type `PatsyFormula` in `init_kwds` or `fit_kwds` are
        processed through Patsy and subset to align with the model's
        endog and exog.

        Parameters
        ----------
        vname : str
           The variable for which the fitting data is returned.

        Returns
        -------
        endog : DataFrame
            Observed values of `vname`.
        exog : DataFrame
            Regression design matrix for imputing `vname`.
        init_kwds : dict-like
            The init keyword arguments for `vname`, processed through Patsy
            as required.
        fit_kwds : dict-like
            The fit keyword arguments for `vname`, processed through Patsy
            as required.
        """

        # Rows with observed endog
        ix = self.ix_obs[vname]

        formula = self.conditional_formula[vname]
        endog, exog = patsy.dmatrices(formula, self.data,
                                      return_type="dataframe")

        endog = np.asarray(endog.iloc[ix, 0])
        exog = np.asarray(exog.iloc[ix, :])

        init_kwds = self._process_kwds(self.init_kwds[vname], ix)
        fit_kwds = self._process_kwds(self.fit_kwds[vname], ix)

        return endog, exog, init_kwds, fit_kwds

    def plot_missing_pattern(self, ax=None, row_order="pattern",
                             column_order="pattern",
                             hide_complete_rows=False,
                             hide_complete_columns=False,
                             color_row_patterns=True):
        """
        Generate an image showing the missing data pattern.

        Parameters
        ----------
        ax : AxesSubplot
            Axes on which to draw the plot.
        row_order : str
            The method for ordering the rows.  Must be one of 'pattern',
            'proportion', or 'raw'.
        column_order : str
            The method for ordering the columns.  Must be one of 'pattern',
            'proportion', or 'raw'.
        hide_complete_rows : bool
            If True, rows with no missing values are not drawn.
        hide_complete_columns : bool
            If True, columns with no missing values are not drawn.
        color_row_patterns : bool
            If True, color the unique row patterns, otherwise use grey
            and white as colors.

        Returns
        -------
        A figure containing a plot of the missing data pattern.
        """

        # Create an indicator matrix for missing values.
        miss = np.zeros(self.data.shape)
        cols = self.data.columns
        for j, col in enumerate(cols):
            ix = self.ix_miss[col]
            miss[ix, j] = 1

        # Order the columns as requested
        if column_order == "proportion":
            ix = np.argsort(miss.mean(0))
        elif column_order == "pattern":
            cv = np.cov(miss.T)
            u, s, vt = np.linalg.svd(cv, 0)
            ix = np.argsort(cv[:, 0])
        elif column_order == "raw":
            ix = np.arange(len(cols))
        else:
            raise ValueError(
                column_order + " is not an allowed value for `column_order`.")
        miss = miss[:, ix]
        cols = [cols[i] for i in ix]

        # Order the rows as requested
        if row_order == "proportion":
            ix = np.argsort(miss.mean(1))
        elif row_order == "pattern":
            x = 2**np.arange(miss.shape[1])
            rky = np.dot(miss, x)
            ix = np.argsort(rky)
        elif row_order == "raw":
            ix = np.arange(miss.shape[0])
        else:
            raise ValueError(
                row_order + " is not an allowed value for `row_order`.")
        miss = miss[ix, :]

        if hide_complete_rows:
            ix = np.flatnonzero((miss == 1).any(1))
            miss = miss[ix, :]

        if hide_complete_columns:
            ix = np.flatnonzero((miss == 1).any(0))
            miss = miss[:, ix]
            cols = [cols[i] for i in ix]

        from statsmodels.graphics import utils as gutils
        from matplotlib.colors import LinearSegmentedColormap

        if ax is None:
            fig, ax = gutils.create_mpl_ax(ax)
        else:
            fig = ax.get_figure()

        if color_row_patterns:
            x = 2**np.arange(miss.shape[1])
            rky = np.dot(miss, x)
            _, rcol = np.unique(rky, return_inverse=True)
            miss *= 1 + rcol[:, None]
            ax.imshow(miss, aspect="auto", interpolation="nearest",
                      cmap='gist_ncar_r')
        else:
            cmap = LinearSegmentedColormap.from_list("_",
                                                     ["white", "darkgrey"])
            ax.imshow(miss, aspect="auto", interpolation="nearest",
                      cmap=cmap)

        ax.set_ylabel("Cases")
        ax.set_xticks(range(len(cols)))
        ax.set_xticklabels(cols, rotation=90)

        return fig

    def plot_bivariate(self, col1_name, col2_name,
                       lowess_args=None, lowess_min_n=40,
                       jitter=None, plot_points=True, ax=None):
        """
        Plot observed and imputed values for two variables.

        Displays a scatterplot of one variable against another.  The
        points are colored according to whether the values are
        observed or imputed.

        Parameters
        ----------
        col1_name : str
            The variable to be plotted on the horizontal axis.
        col2_name : str
            The variable to be plotted on the vertical axis.
        lowess_args : dictionary
            A dictionary of dictionaries, keys are 'ii', 'io', 'oi'
            and 'oo', where 'o' denotes 'observed' and 'i' denotes
            imputed.  See Notes for details.
        lowess_min_n : int
            Minimum sample size to plot a lowess fit
        jitter : float or tuple
            Standard deviation for jittering points in the plot.
            Either a single scalar applied to both axes, or a tuple
            containing x-axis jitter and y-axis jitter, respectively.
        plot_points : bool
            If True, the data points are plotted.
        ax : AxesSubplot
            Axes on which to plot, created if not provided.

        Returns
        -------
        The matplotlib figure on which the plot id drawn.
        """

        from statsmodels.graphics import utils as gutils
        from statsmodels.nonparametric.smoothers_lowess import lowess

        if lowess_args is None:
            lowess_args = {}

        if ax is None:
            fig, ax = gutils.create_mpl_ax(ax)
        else:
            fig = ax.get_figure()

        ax.set_position([0.1, 0.1, 0.7, 0.8])

        ix1i = self.ix_miss[col1_name]
        ix1o = self.ix_obs[col1_name]
        ix2i = self.ix_miss[col2_name]
        ix2o = self.ix_obs[col2_name]

        ix_ii = np.intersect1d(ix1i, ix2i)
        ix_io = np.intersect1d(ix1i, ix2o)
        ix_oi = np.intersect1d(ix1o, ix2i)
        ix_oo = np.intersect1d(ix1o, ix2o)

        vec1 = np.asarray(self.data[col1_name])
        vec2 = np.asarray(self.data[col2_name])

        if jitter is not None:
            if np.isscalar(jitter):
                jitter = (jitter, jitter)
            vec1 += jitter[0] * np.random.normal(size=len(vec1))
            vec2 += jitter[1] * np.random.normal(size=len(vec2))

        # Plot the points
        keys = ['oo', 'io', 'oi', 'ii']
        lak = {'i': 'imp', 'o': 'obs'}
        ixs = {'ii': ix_ii, 'io': ix_io, 'oi': ix_oi, 'oo': ix_oo}
        color = {'oo': 'grey', 'ii': 'red', 'io': 'orange',
                 'oi': 'lime'}
        if plot_points:
            for ky in keys:
                ix = ixs[ky]
                lab = lak[ky[0]] + "/" + lak[ky[1]]
                ax.plot(vec1[ix], vec2[ix], 'o', color=color[ky],
                        label=lab, alpha=0.6)

        # Plot the lowess fits
        for ky in keys:
            ix = ixs[ky]
            if len(ix) < lowess_min_n:
                continue
            if ky in lowess_args:
                la = lowess_args[ky]
            else:
                la = {}
            ix = ixs[ky]
            lfit = lowess(vec2[ix], vec1[ix], **la)
            if plot_points:
                ax.plot(lfit[:, 0], lfit[:, 1], '-', color=color[ky],
                        alpha=0.6, lw=4)
            else:
                lab = lak[ky[0]] + "/" + lak[ky[1]]
                ax.plot(lfit[:, 0], lfit[:, 1], '-', color=color[ky],
                        alpha=0.6, lw=4, label=lab)

        ha, la = ax.get_legend_handles_labels()
        pad = 0.0001 if plot_points else 0.5
        leg = fig.legend(ha, la, 'center right', numpoints=1,
                         handletextpad=pad)
        leg.draw_frame(False)

        ax.set_xlabel(col1_name)
        ax.set_ylabel(col2_name)

        return fig

    def plot_fit_obs(self, col_name, lowess_args=None,
                     lowess_min_n=40, jitter=None,
                     plot_points=True, ax=None):
        """
        Plot fitted versus imputed or observed values as a scatterplot.

        Parameters
        ----------
        col_name : str
            The variable to be plotted on the horizontal axis.
        lowess_args : dict-like
            Keyword arguments passed to lowess fit.  A dictionary of
            dictionaries, keys are 'o' and 'i' denoting 'observed' and
            'imputed', respectively.
        lowess_min_n : int
            Minimum sample size to plot a lowess fit
        jitter : float or tuple
            Standard deviation for jittering points in the plot.
            Either a single scalar applied to both axes, or a tuple
            containing x-axis jitter and y-axis jitter, respectively.
        plot_points : bool
            If True, the data points are plotted.
        ax : AxesSubplot
            Axes on which to plot, created if not provided.

        Returns
        -------
        The matplotlib figure on which the plot is drawn.
        """

        from statsmodels.graphics import utils as gutils
        from statsmodels.nonparametric.smoothers_lowess import lowess

        if lowess_args is None:
            lowess_args = {}

        if ax is None:
            fig, ax = gutils.create_mpl_ax(ax)
        else:
            fig = ax.get_figure()

        ax.set_position([0.1, 0.1, 0.7, 0.8])

        ixi = self.ix_miss[col_name]
        ixo = self.ix_obs[col_name]

        vec1 = np.asarray(self.data[col_name])

        # Fitted values
        formula = self.conditional_formula[col_name]
        endog, exog = patsy.dmatrices(formula, self.data,
                                      return_type="dataframe")
        results = self.results[col_name]
        vec2 = results.predict(exog=exog)
        vec2 = self._get_predicted(vec2)

        if jitter is not None:
            if np.isscalar(jitter):
                jitter = (jitter, jitter)
            vec1 += jitter[0] * np.random.normal(size=len(vec1))
            vec2 += jitter[1] * np.random.normal(size=len(vec2))

        # Plot the points
        keys = ['o', 'i']
        ixs = {'o': ixo, 'i': ixi}
        lak = {'o': 'obs', 'i': 'imp'}
        color = {'o': 'orange', 'i': 'lime'}
        if plot_points:
            for ky in keys:
                ix = ixs[ky]
                ax.plot(vec1[ix], vec2[ix], 'o', color=color[ky],
                        label=lak[ky], alpha=0.6)

        # Plot the lowess fits
        for ky in keys:
            ix = ixs[ky]
            if len(ix) < lowess_min_n:
                continue
            if ky in lowess_args:
                la = lowess_args[ky]
            else:
                la = {}
            ix = ixs[ky]
            lfit = lowess(vec2[ix], vec1[ix], **la)
            ax.plot(lfit[:, 0], lfit[:, 1], '-', color=color[ky],
                    alpha=0.6, lw=4, label=lak[ky])

        ha, la = ax.get_legend_handles_labels()
        leg = fig.legend(ha, la, 'center right', numpoints=1)
        leg.draw_frame(False)

        ax.set_xlabel(col_name + " observed or imputed")
        ax.set_ylabel(col_name + " fitted")

        return fig

    def plot_imputed_hist(self, col_name, ax=None, imp_hist_args=None,
                          obs_hist_args=None, all_hist_args=None):
        """
        Display imputed values for one variable as a histogram.

        Parameters
        ----------
        col_name : str
            The name of the variable to be plotted.
        ax : AxesSubplot
            An axes on which to draw the histograms.  If not provided,
            one is created.
        imp_hist_args : dict
            Keyword arguments to be passed to pyplot.hist when
            creating the histogram for imputed values.
        obs_hist_args : dict
            Keyword arguments to be passed to pyplot.hist when
            creating the histogram for observed values.
        all_hist_args : dict
            Keyword arguments to be passed to pyplot.hist when
            creating the histogram for all values.

        Returns
        -------
        The matplotlib figure on which the histograms were drawn
        """

        from statsmodels.graphics import utils as gutils

        if imp_hist_args is None:
            imp_hist_args = {}
        if obs_hist_args is None:
            obs_hist_args = {}
        if all_hist_args is None:
            all_hist_args = {}

        if ax is None:
            fig, ax = gutils.create_mpl_ax(ax)
        else:
            fig = ax.get_figure()

        ax.set_position([0.1, 0.1, 0.7, 0.8])

        ixm = self.ix_miss[col_name]
        ixo = self.ix_obs[col_name]

        imp = self.data[col_name].iloc[ixm]
        obs = self.data[col_name].iloc[ixo]

        for di in imp_hist_args, obs_hist_args, all_hist_args:
            if 'histtype' not in di:
                di['histtype'] = 'step'

        ha, la = [], []
        if len(imp) > 0:
            h = ax.hist(np.asarray(imp), **imp_hist_args)
            ha.append(h[-1][0])
            la.append("Imp")
        h1 = ax.hist(np.asarray(obs), **obs_hist_args)
        h2 = ax.hist(np.asarray(self.data[col_name]), **all_hist_args)
        ha.extend([h1[-1][0], h2[-1][0]])
        la.extend(["Obs", "All"])

        leg = fig.legend(ha, la, 'center right', numpoints=1)
        leg.draw_frame(False)

        ax.set_xlabel(col_name)
        ax.set_ylabel("Frequency")

        return fig

    # Try to identify any auxiliary arrays (e.g. status vector in
    # PHReg) that need to be bootstrapped along with exog and endog.
    def _boot_kwds(self, kwds, rix):

        for k in kwds:
            v = kwds[k]

            # This is only relevant for ndarrays
            if not isinstance(v, np.ndarray):
                continue

            # Handle 1d vectors
            if (v.ndim == 1) and (v.shape[0] == len(rix)):
                kwds[k] = v[rix]

            # Handle 2d arrays
            if (v.ndim == 2) and (v.shape[0] == len(rix)):
                kwds[k] = v[rix, :]

        return kwds

    def _perturb_bootstrap(self, vname):
        """
        Perturbs the model's parameters using a bootstrap.
        """

        endog, exog, init_kwds, fit_kwds = self.get_fitting_data(vname)

        m = len(endog)
        rix = np.random.randint(0, m, m)
        endog = endog[rix]
        exog = exog[rix, :]

        init_kwds = self._boot_kwds(init_kwds, rix)
        fit_kwds = self._boot_kwds(fit_kwds, rix)

        klass = self.model_class[vname]
        self.models[vname] = klass(endog, exog, **init_kwds)

        if vname in self.regularized and self.regularized[vname]:
            self.results[vname] = (
                self.models[vname].fit_regularized(**fit_kwds))
        else:
            self.results[vname] = self.models[vname].fit(**fit_kwds)

        self.params[vname] = self.results[vname].params

    def _perturb_gaussian(self, vname):
        """
        Gaussian perturbation of model parameters.

        The normal approximation to the sampling distribution of the
        parameter estimates is used to define the mean and covariance
        structure of the perturbation distribution.
        """

        endog, exog, init_kwds, fit_kwds = self.get_fitting_data(vname)

        klass = self.model_class[vname]
        self.models[vname] = klass(endog, exog, **init_kwds)
        self.results[vname] = self.models[vname].fit(**fit_kwds)

        cov = self.results[vname].cov_params()
        mu = self.results[vname].params
        self.params[vname] = np.random.multivariate_normal(mean=mu, cov=cov)

    def perturb_params(self, vname):

        if self.perturbation_method[vname] == "gaussian":
            self._perturb_gaussian(vname)
        elif self.perturbation_method[vname] == "boot":
            self._perturb_bootstrap(vname)
        else:
            raise ValueError("unknown perturbation method")

    def impute(self, vname):
        # Wrap this in case we later add additional imputation
        # methods.
        self.impute_pmm(vname)

    def update(self, vname):
        """
        Impute missing values for a single variable.

        This is a two-step process in which first the parameters are
        perturbed, then the missing values are re-imputed.

        Parameters
        ----------
        vname : str
            The name of the variable to be updated.
        """

        self.perturb_params(vname)
        self.impute(vname)

    # work-around for inconsistent predict return values
    def _get_predicted(self, obj):

        if isinstance(obj, np.ndarray):
            return obj
        elif isinstance(obj, pd.Series):
            return obj.values
        elif hasattr(obj, 'predicted_values'):
            return obj.predicted_values
        else:
            raise ValueError(
                "cannot obtain predicted values from %s" % obj.__class__)

    def impute_pmm(self, vname):
        """
        Use predictive mean matching to impute missing values.

        Notes
        -----
        The `perturb_params` method must be called first to define the
        model.
        """

        k_pmm = self.k_pmm

        endog_obs, exog_obs, exog_miss, predict_obs_kwds, predict_miss_kwds = (
            self.get_split_data(vname))

        # Predict imputed variable for both missing and non-missing
        # observations
        model = self.models[vname]
        pendog_obs = model.predict(self.params[vname], exog_obs,
                                   **predict_obs_kwds)
        pendog_miss = model.predict(self.params[vname], exog_miss,
                                    **predict_miss_kwds)

        pendog_obs = self._get_predicted(pendog_obs)
        pendog_miss = self._get_predicted(pendog_miss)

        # Jointly sort the observed and predicted endog values for the
        # cases with observed values.
        ii = np.argsort(pendog_obs)
        endog_obs = endog_obs[ii]
        pendog_obs = pendog_obs[ii]

        # Find the closest match to the predicted endog values for
        # cases with missing endog values.
        ix = np.searchsorted(pendog_obs, pendog_miss)

        # Get the indices for the closest k_pmm values on
        # either side of the closest index.
        ixm = ix[:, None] + np.arange(-k_pmm, k_pmm)[None, :]

        # Account for boundary effects
        msk = np.nonzero((ixm < 0) | (ixm > len(endog_obs) - 1))
        ixm = np.clip(ixm, 0, len(endog_obs) - 1)

        # Get the distances
        dx = pendog_miss[:, None] - pendog_obs[ixm]
        dx = np.abs(dx)
        dx[msk] = np.inf

        # Closest positions in ix, row-wise.
        dxi = np.argsort(dx, 1)[:, 0:k_pmm]

        # Choose a column for each row.
        ir = np.random.randint(0, k_pmm, len(pendog_miss))

        # Unwind the indices
        jj = np.arange(dxi.shape[0])
        ix = dxi[(jj, ir)]
        iz = ixm[(jj, ix)]

        imputed_miss = np.array(endog_obs[iz]).squeeze()
        self._store_changes(vname, imputed_miss)


_mice_example_1 = """
    >>> imp = mice.MICEData(data)
    >>> fml = 'y ~ x1 + x2 + x3 + x4'
    >>> mice = mice.MICE(fml, sm.OLS, imp)
    >>> results = mice.fit(10, 10)
    >>> print(results.summary())

    .. literalinclude:: ../plots/mice_example_1.txt
    """

_mice_example_2 = """
    >>> imp = mice.MICEData(data)
    >>> fml = 'y ~ x1 + x2 + x3 + x4'
    >>> mice = mice.MICE(fml, sm.OLS, imp)
    >>> results = []
    >>> for k in range(10):
    >>>     x = mice.next_sample()
    >>>     results.append(x)
    """


class MICE(object):

    __doc__ = """\
    Multiple Imputation with Chained Equations.

    This class can be used to fit most statsmodels models to data sets
    with missing values using the 'multiple imputation with chained
    equations' (MICE) approach..

    Parameters
    ----------
    model_formula : str
        The model formula to be fit to the imputed data sets.  This
        formula is for the 'analysis model'.
    model_class : statsmodels model
        The model to be fit to the imputed data sets.  This model
        class if for the 'analysis model'.
    data : MICEData instance
        MICEData object containing the data set for which
        missing values will be imputed
    n_skip : int
        The number of imputed datasets to skip between consecutive
        imputed datasets that are used for analysis.
    init_kwds : dict-like
        Dictionary of keyword arguments passed to the init method
        of the analysis model.
    fit_kwds : dict-like
        Dictionary of keyword arguments passed to the fit method
        of the analysis model.

    Examples
    --------
    Run all MICE steps and obtain results:
    %(mice_example_1)s

    Obtain a sequence of fitted analysis models without combining
    to obtain summary::
    %(mice_example_2)s
    """ % {'mice_example_1': _mice_example_1,
           'mice_example_2': _mice_example_2}

    def __init__(self, model_formula, model_class, data, n_skip=3,
                 init_kwds=None, fit_kwds=None):

        self.model_formula = model_formula
        self.model_class = model_class
        self.n_skip = n_skip
        self.data = data
        self.results_list = []

        self.init_kwds = init_kwds if init_kwds is not None else {}
        self.fit_kwds = fit_kwds if fit_kwds is not None else {}

    def next_sample(self):
        """
        Perform one complete MICE iteration.

        A single MICE iteration updates all missing values using their
        respective imputation models, then fits the analysis model to
        the imputed data.

        Returns
        -------
        params : array_like
            The model parameters for the analysis model.

        Notes
        -----
        This function fits the analysis model and returns its
        parameter estimate.  The parameter vector is not stored by the
        class and is not used in any subsequent calls to `combine`.
        Use `fit` to run all MICE steps together and obtain summary
        results.

        The complete cycle of missing value imputation followed by
        fitting the analysis model is repeated `n_skip + 1` times and
        the analysis model parameters from the final fit are returned.
        """

        # Impute missing values
        self.data.update_all(self.n_skip + 1)
        start_params = None
        if len(self.results_list) > 0:
            start_params = self.results_list[-1].params

        # Fit the analysis model.
        model = self.model_class.from_formula(self.model_formula,
                                              self.data.data,
                                              **self.init_kwds)
        self.fit_kwds.update({"start_params": start_params})
        result = model.fit(**self.fit_kwds)

        return result

    def fit(self, n_burnin=10, n_imputations=10):
        """
        Fit a model using MICE.

        Parameters
        ----------
        n_burnin : int
            The number of burn-in cycles to skip.
        n_imputations : int
            The number of data sets to impute
        """

        # Run without fitting the analysis model
        self.data.update_all(n_burnin)

        for j in range(n_imputations):
            result = self.next_sample()
            self.results_list.append(result)

        self.endog_names = result.model.endog_names
        self.exog_names = result.model.exog_names

        return self.combine()

    def combine(self):
        """
        Pools MICE imputation results.

        This method can only be used after the `run` method has been
        called.  Returns estimates and standard errors of the analysis
        model parameters.

        Returns a MICEResults instance.
        """

        # Extract a few things from the models that were fit to
        # imputed data sets.
        params_list = []
        cov_within = 0.
        scale_list = []
        for results in self.results_list:
            results_uw = results._results
            params_list.append(results_uw.params)
            cov_within += results_uw.cov_params()
            scale_list.append(results.scale)
        params_list = np.asarray(params_list)
        scale_list = np.asarray(scale_list)

        # The estimated parameters for the MICE analysis
        params = params_list.mean(0)

        # The average of the within-imputation covariances
        cov_within /= len(self.results_list)

        # The between-imputation covariance
        cov_between = np.cov(params_list.T)

        # The estimated covariance matrix for the MICE analysis
        f = 1 + 1 / float(len(self.results_list))
        cov_params = cov_within + f * cov_between

        # Fraction of missing information
        fmi = f * np.diag(cov_between) / np.diag(cov_params)

        # Set up a results instance
        scale = np.mean(scale_list)
        results = MICEResults(self, params, cov_params / scale)
        results.scale = scale
        results.frac_miss_info = fmi
        results.exog_names = self.exog_names
        results.endog_names = self.endog_names
        results.model_class = self.model_class

        return results


class MICEResults(LikelihoodModelResults):

    def __init__(self, model, params, normalized_cov_params):

        super(MICEResults, self).__init__(model, params,
                                          normalized_cov_params)

    def summary(self, title=None, alpha=.05):
        """
        Summarize the results of running MICE.

        Parameters
        ----------
        title : str, optional
            Title for the top table. If not None, then this replaces
            the default title
        alpha : float
            Significance level for the confidence intervals

        Returns
        -------
        smry : Summary instance
            This holds the summary tables and text, which can be
            printed or converted to various output formats.
        """

        from statsmodels.iolib import summary2
        from collections import OrderedDict

        smry = summary2.Summary()
        float_format = "%8.3f"

        info = OrderedDict()
        info["Method:"] = "MICE"
        info["Model:"] = self.model_class.__name__
        info["Dependent variable:"] = self.endog_names
        info["Sample size:"] = "%d" % self.model.data.data.shape[0]
        info["Scale"] = "%.2f" % self.scale
        info["Num. imputations"] = "%d" % len(self.model.results_list)

        smry.add_dict(info, align='l', float_format=float_format)

        param = summary2.summary_params(self, alpha=alpha)
        param["FMI"] = self.frac_miss_info

        smry.add_df(param, float_format=float_format)
        smry.add_title(title=title, results=self)

        return smry
